An Examination of Suppression and Distortion in 20th-Century Baha'i Literature Part 2

Warning

JUser: :_load: Unable to load user with ID: 667

An Examination of Suppression and Distortion in 20th-Century Baha'i Literature Part 2

An Examination of Suppression and Distortion in 20th-Century Baha\'i Literature

Part 2

IMRAN SHEIKH

1. Posthumous Additions, Deletions, and Suppression in Popular Baha\'i Books
During the first half of this century, English speaking Baha\'is who were interested in the history of the movement generally came to rely upon the works of E.G Browne because, not only were they scholarly, reasonably sympathetic, and the most accurate sources at that time, but because they were essentially the only English language sources available which treated the subject in any depth. Therefore, Browne\'s works were cited quite frequently in a number of books by popular Baha\'i authors. But, as time passed, Browne\'s materials began to be replaced by the hagiographical works,Â God Passes ByÂ andÂ The Dawnbreakers; the former being a survey of the first hundred years of the movement by Shoghi Effendi, whileÂ The DawnbreakersÂ is a translation of an early history by Nabil Zarandi, a partisan of Baha\'u\'llah. (43) Browne\'s comments which cast the Baha\'i faith in a favorable light still appear in Baha\'i books, but his opinions on the origins and evolution of the faith have become quite unwelcome in recent years. (44)

Evidence of attempts on the part of Baha\'is to divert readers from Browne\'s contributions to Babi and Baha\'i history can be seen by comparing original and later editions ofÂ All Things Made NewÂ by John Ferraby. Ferraby, who served as the National Secretary of the British Baha\'i community and who was appointed a \"Hand of the Cause\" in 1957, penned an introduction to the faith which was published that same year. The original edition contains a list of references, as well as a list of abbreviations of \"Baha\'i Books Referred To.\" (45) Browne\'sÂ Materials for the Study of the Babi ReligionÂ and his translation ofÂ A Traveller\'s NarrativeÂ , with notes, both appear in these lists, but have been removed from the 1987 edition, which was revised posthumously. Further, Browne\'s writings are still included in the text of the book, but the references have been changed so that they no longer direct the reader to the primary source, but to Baha\'i books which contain the same quotations, as well material which is critical of Browne. (46) Apparently, the editors wish to make use of the scholar\'s favorable comments, but refer their readers to books which question Browne\'s value as an authority on the subject and which may neutralize potential problems which could result from consultation of his more critical writings. (47)

Another case of suppression involves John E. Esselmont\'s use of materials by the former Baha\'i historian Abdu\'l-Husayn Ayati, named Avarih or Wanderer by Abdu\'l-Baha. Avarih was also a \"Hand of the Cause\" who was commissioned by Abdu\'l-Baha to write a history of the Baha\'i Faith in Persian, which was published in 1923 and 1924. After completing a missionary journey to Europe, Avarih lost faith in the Cause and was subsequently declared a Covenant-breaker by Shoghi Effendi. (48) Covenant-breakers are those who have accepted Baha\'u\'llah as a Manifestation of God, but have later apostatized and opposed Baha\'u\'llah, his successors, or Baha\'i institutions. Faithful members are instructed to shun entirely those who have rebelled against the Cause of God and, although not explicitly commanded, the reading of material written by Covenant-breakers is discouraged as well. (49) In the original edition ofÂ Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era, Esselmont expressed his gratitude to Avarih for his assistance in the preparation of the book and referred to him as \"the learned Persian historian of the Baha\'i movement.\" (50) In later editions, this acknowledgement has been removed from the preface without any notation. (51) Avarih was quoted five times in the original edition to shed additional light on certain events. Two of these quotations were dropped completely from the text of the 1980 edition, but the other three were retained entirely. However, in one note, Avarih\'s name has disappeared and there is no reference to any source. (52) In another he is quoted, but his name has been substituted by the words \"On this point a historian remarks.\" (53) And finally, Esselmont included an account of the marriage of Abdu\'l-Baha which was \"kindly supplied to the writer by Janab-i-Avarih,\" but the 1980 edition refers only to \"a Persian historian of the Baha\'i Faith.\" (54)

Actually, these are but a few of the many changes which were originally made in the 1937 revision of theÂ Baha\'u\'llah and the New EraÂ by \"the American National Spiritual Assembly, acting under the advice and approval of Shoghi Effendi.\" The preface to the 1937 edition states that the revision was necessary to correct \"a few errors of fact,\" to update Esselmont\'s explanations of the stations of Abdu\'l-Baha and the Bab, and to remove his treatments of issues which are no longer relevant to the Faith. It is further stated that \"these revisions in no respect alter the original plan of Dr. Esselmont\'s book, nor effect the major portion of his text.\" (55) These assertions, however, are misleading. In fact, there have been over forty changes, some of which include entire sections or paragraphs totaling hundreds of words. And, some of the revisions do \"alter the original plan of Dr. Esselmont\'s book.\" This is certainly the case in the removal of Esselmont\'s eyewitness accounts of discourses by Abdu\'l-Baha.

Like many of the early Western believers, Esselmont was captivated by and completely devoted to his Master, Abdu\'l-Baha. After corresponding with him, Esselmont received an invitation to come to Haifa in 1919, where he spent over two months as his guest. During this period, the two discussed the manuscript ofÂ Baha\'u\'llah and the New EraÂ and \"several valuable suggestions\" were made. (56) In the 1923 edition, Esselmont included a number of statements by Abdu\'l-Baha which he had personally heard and recorded. In spite of the value which these firsthand accounts contribute to our understanding of Abdu\'l-Baha and the perceptions of early believers, some of them have been removed from later editions without any notation. (57) For example, on page 123, Abdu\'l-Baha advocated, in detail, a constitutional form of monarchy over a republican form of government as practiced in the United States. This was included in Esselmont\'s chapter titled \"True Civilization,\" to illustrate the type of government which Baha\'u\'llah counseled nations to adopt until the next Manifestation of God appears. In later editions Esselmont\'s words have been replaced with nearly three pages of new material speaking merely of the fact that there will be different types of governments during the \"Lesser Peace\" and the \"Most Great Peace.\" Although Abdu\'l-Baha was quite specific, these later accretions are vague and give no clear illustration of what type of rule Baha\'u\'llah would have nations adopt. (58)

Perhaps the most important change inÂ Baha\'u\'llah and the New EraÂ was made on page 212 of the 1923 edition. Recorded as a Baha\'i prophecy (59) concerning the \"Coming of the Kingdom of God,\" Esselmont cited Abdu\'l-Baha\'s interpretation of the last two verses of the Book of Daniel from the Bible. He stated that the 1335 days spoken of by Daniel represented 1335 solar years from Muhammad\'s flight to Medina in 622 A.D., which would equal 1957 A.D.. When asked \"\'What shall we see at the end of the 1335 days?\',\" Abdu\'l-Baha\'s reply was: \"\'Universal Peace will be firmly established, a Universal language promoted. Misunderstandings will pass away. The Baha\'i Cause will be promulgated in all parts and the oneness of mankind established. It will be most glorious!\'\" (60) In editions published after his death, Esselmont\'s words have been changed to say that Abdu\'l-Baha \"reckoned the fulfillment of Daniel\'s prophecy from the date of the beginning of the Muhammadan era \" (61) and one of Abdu\'l-Baha\'s Tablets is quoted on the same subject in which he writes, \"\'For according to this calculation a century will have elapsed from the dawn of the Sun of Truth....\'\" Esselmont appears to conclude that Abdu\'l-Baha was referring to the year 1963 and the one hundredth anniversary of Baha\'u\'llah\'s public claim to be a Manifestation of God. (62) These words, however, were never written by the author, but were added posthumously. And, it should be noted that the phrase \"\'the dawn of the Sun of Truth\'\" is not a reference to a particular year, in this case 1863, but to a period of years when the Bab and his followers were preparing the way for the Manifestation of Baha\'u\'llah. Hence, they are commonly referred to as the \"Dawn-Breakers.\" (63) Further, in another quotation which originally appeared on the same page, but was also removed from later editions, Abdu\'l-Baha plainly stated, \"\' This is the Century of the Sun of Truth. This is the Century of the establishment of the Kingdom of God upon the earth.\'\" (64) Esselmont recorded Abdu\'l-Baha as declaring explicitly that the prophecy was to be computed from the Hijra or 622 A.D. and that specific conditions would exist in the world upon it\'s fulfillment in 1957. When it became apparent that this Baha\'i prophecy would not be fulfilled, it was replaced with the ambiguous material which has remained in the text to the present. This is evident from the fact that, although Esselmont\'s other eyewitness accounts were removed in the 1937 revision, the record of Abdu\'l-Baha\'s prophecy was left intact by the American National Spiritual Assembly and Shoghi Effendi. It was not changed until after 1957. (65) Also, Abdu\'l-Baha\'s conviction that all of these events would take place in this century have been expressed in other writings and it is evident that Shoghi Effendi shared his optimism as well. (66)

Upon an examination of revisions in recent Baha\'i literature, it seems that the institution of the Guardian of the Cause of God has been the subject of the most widespread bowdlerization of texts. The office of the Guardian was first established by Abdu\'l-Baha in his Will and Testament. Shoghi Effendi, his eldest grandson, was named as the first in a succession of hereditary Guardians. The Guardian is the authoritative interpreter of the holy writings and the permanent head of the Universal House of Justice, the supreme administrative body which was referred to by Baha\'u\'llah in hisÂ Kitab-i-Aqdas. Through the Guardianship, the Cause of God is believed to be safeguarded from schism, because he is to be under the protection and infallible guidance of Baha\'u\'llah and the Bab. (67) However, the Baha\'i world was thrown into confusion when Shoghi Effendi died suddenly on November 4, 1957. He had left no Will or instructions, and he had named no successor. Since all of Baha\'u\'llah\'s living male descendents had been declared Covenant-breakers by Shoghi Effendi, the Hands of the Cause of God assumed authority over the entire Baha\'i community. The Hands were a group of leading Baha\'is who had been chosen in accordance with Abdu\'l-Baha\'s Will and had been named \"the Chief Stewards of Baha\'u\'llah\'s embryonic World Commonwealth\" by Shoghi Effendi, shortly before his death. The Hands of the Cause moved the community in a direction which culminated in the election of the Universal House of Justice. This was accomplished with surprisingly little opposition or schism. (68)

Changes in books written prior to 1957 indicate that the failure of what was to be a perpetual, divinely ordained and protected institution became a delicate subject with the Baha\'i Administration. But, it should be pointed out that, although there have been numerous revisions, there are still books which have not been changed at all. So, there does not appear to be a conspiracy or systematic program to eradicate the notion of a continuous Guardianship. However, the books which have been substantially reworked are popular introductions and histories, often used for propagating the Faith.

John Ferraby\'sÂ All Things Made NewÂ is second only toÂ Baha\'u\'llah and the New EraÂ in the number of textual changes. The original edition, first published in 1957, was dedicated \"To Shoghi Effendi: The First Guardian of the Baha\'i Faith.\" (69) In the 1987 edition the dedication is \"To Shoghi Effendi: The Guardian of the Baha\'i Faith,\" implying that there was to be only one Guardian. (70) Ferraby originally stated that, \"Abdu\'l-Baha, in his turn, arranged that the Cause would still have a visible Centre after His passing, by providing for a succession of Guardians of the Cause of God to follow him.\" He then included over two hundred words from Abdu\'l-Baha\'s Will to explain the importance of the perpetual Guardianship and how successors are to be chosen. (71) This entire section has been rewritten in later editions, stating that Abdu\'l-Baha\'s Will only provided for \"the possibility of a succession of Guardians...\" And, the portions of Abdu\'l-Baha\'s Will have been replaced with the statement, \"Although there could have been a series of Guardians, there is nowhere in the writings any promise or guarantee that the line of Guardians would not be broken but would endure forever.\" (72)

But, there were others who were also convinced that the institution of the Guardianship would continue. George Townshend, another Hand of the Cause, wrote that, \"When it is written that \'the government shall be upon his shoulder\' the reference can be to the Guardian only and the continuing \'forever\' of his sovereignty can only be referred to the lineage of succeeding Guardians.\" (73) In later editions, Townshend\'s interpretation of this passage from the Biblical book of Isaiah which he said could only apply to the Guardian has been changed to refer to \"the devolution by Baha\'u\'llah of supreme authority upon his divinely guided institutions...\" (74) Shoghi Effendi\'s wife Ruhiyyih Rabbani was convinced that her husband was the first in a line of Guardians. In a book which is no longer in print, she argued that: \"The principle of successorship, endowed with the right of Divine interpretation, is the very hub of the Cause into which its Doctrines and Laws fit like the spokes of a wheel - tear out the hub and you have to throw the whole thing away.\" (75)

Finally, it is important to consider Shoghi Effendi\'s understanding of the nature of the Guardianship. He was probably more familiar with his grandfather\'s Will than anyone and he is believed to have been endowed with divine inspiration to make authoritative interpretations of the Writings. (76) The original edition ofÂ The Selected Writings of Shoghi Effendi included numerous references to the institution of the Guardianship and its inspired origin, its perpetual nature, and its absolute centrality to the Covenant. This collection of his writings opened with a large extract from the Will and Testament of Abdu\'l-Baha which could best be summed up as an appeal to the believers to be \"firm in the Covenant\" and follow the divine guidance which can only be found in the Cause of God. In the 1975 edition most of the text of this appeal has been removed, except for two paragraphs which promised that the Twin Pillars of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice are under the guidance and protection of Baha\'u\'llah and the Bab. However, the phrase \"...and after him will succeed the first-born of his lineal descendants\" no longer appears at the end of the paragraph concerning the Guardian. (77) Two complete pages have been removed from the original edition without notation, including this explicit statement:

Divorced from the institution of the Guardianship the World Order of Baha\'u\'llah would be mutilated and permanently deprived of that hereditary principle which, as Abdu\'l-Baha has written, has been invariably upheld by the Law of God. \'In all Divine Dispensations,\' He states, in a Tablet addressed to a follower of the Faith in Persia, \'the eldest son hath been given extraordinary distinctions. Even the station of prophet hood hath been his birthright.\' Without such an institution the integrity of the Faith would be imperilled, and the stability of the entire fabric would be gravely endangered. (78)

2. Literature Review

\"The purpose of review is to ensure that minimal standards of accuracy, conformity with the Teachings, and dignity of presentation of the Faith are maintained in works that present the Baha\'i Faith to the public.\" This is, according to the Research Office at the Baha\'i National Center in Wilmette, Illinois, the primary function of the review process. Review was established by Abdu\'l-Baha early in this century, at a time when the Baha\'i Faith was quite new and was spreading rapidly westward. It is considered to be necessary only until the time when the Faith is well known throughout the world and the danger of misrepresentation, whether innocently or intentionally, by individuals has past. (79) Every Baha\'i must submit his or her work to a review committee if it is to be published and if the Baha\'i Faith is to be treated to any degree within the work. (80)

The main task of the reviewers is to ensure that the author, in stating his or her views, has not contradicted or misrepresented the teachings of Baha\'u\'llah, Abdu\'l-Baha, Shoghi Effendi or the Universal House of Justice. Another very important role which the review committee plays is to see that publications are \"timely.\" This means that manuscripts must not be passed if they contain information which \"could give rise to serious problems for the Cause\" or which could endanger the lives of Baha\'is in repressive nations. Such is the case in modern Iran, where specific information could result in persecution or even death for faithful Baha\'is. (81)

Although review is considered a necessity within the community, reviewers are to be concerned with the rights of individuals to express themselves freely and to engage in thoughtful dialogue and exchange of ideas. As manuscripts are reviewed, suggestions are made to the author to correct contradictions, misinterpretations, or speculations. After making the suggested changes, the work is passed for publication. In some cases, however, manuscripts may be completely rejected because they have major problems. Reviews may be appealed, but if a writer insists on publishing an article or book which has not been passed, he or she faces the possibility of excommunication or loss of administrative rights. (82)

Many of the concerns which have been addressed through the review process are very real indeed and it is based upon some practical and constructive principles. However, there is a danger that review can be used to stifle individuals or ideas which are perceived as threatening to traditional institutions. Or, it may be used to suppress works which challenge established assumptions concerning the Faith. It is precisely this negative potential inherent in the process which has been the focus of recent criticism, particularly from the academic community. Scholars within the Faith are faced with the momentous task of carrying on accurate and objective research, which may then be subjected to review by committee members who are not qualified to assess the true value and reliability of their work. And, any attempt to critique, reform, or discontinue literature review, may very well be suppressed through the very process which they seek to change. (83)

At least once in recent years, an historical manuscript has been subjected to censorship through review, lending credibility to the criticism of scholars in the field of Babi-Baha\'i history. In 1982, Kalimat Press publishedÂ My Memories of Baha\'u\'llah, (84) a translation of the memoirs of one of Baha\'u\'llah\'s personal servants. The manuscript was reviewed before publication and it was decided that some of \"\'the most harmful\'\" material should be removed from text. (85)When the book was finally published, a number of the required changes had not been made, so it was decided that future publications by Kalimat Press would be reviewed by Baha\'i authorities at the World Center in Haifa, Israel. (86) This incident demonstrated that review not only has the potential, but has in at least one case, been used to paint a more favorable picture of Baha\'i history by suppressing \"harmful\" portions of an historical document.

Conclusion:

Professor Browne\'s observation that \"the more the Baha\'i doctrine spreads...the more ...the original Babi movement is obscured and distorted,\" cannot be taken too literally, but it is quite certain from the foregoing examination that Baha\'i institutions and Baha\'i authors have continued to rewrite history up to the present time. Popular writers, such as Hatcher and Martin, have distorted the history of the movement by producing pious, inaccurate records which rely heavily upon orthodox works, while virtually ignoring important research by both Baha\'i and non-Baha\'i scholars. Through the questionable practice of revising previously published books, the views of deceased authors have been corrected and brought into conformity with modern perceptions and dogma. And, through the process of literature review, future publications will be regulated and kept within the boundaries of orthodoxy. There is not sufficient reason to conclude that there is a well orchestrated conspiracy on the part of the Baha\'i Administration, in which these three practices are coordinated to completely overhaul the history of the movement. But, it is safe to conclude that, since the Baha\'i Faith began spreading westward at the turn of the century, there has been a tendency on the part of Baha\'i individuals and institutions to distort or suppress historical data. And, unless Baha\'is are granted more freedom in expressing their views and more pressure is placed upon the Baha\'i Administration through the research, concern and efforts of those outside the Faith, there is no reason to believe that this ongoing revision and rewriting will cease in the near future .

Appendix

The tables below represent a survey of some of the major changes made in selected books, between their original publication and later editions, which were written by Baha\'i authors during the 20th century. A major change is considered to be a revision which reflects a change in Western Baha\'i doctrine, practice or attitude toward a particular subject since the early 1900\'s. It should be noted however, that there have been literally hundreds of changes made in the few books examined to date

Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era by John E. Esselmont

Edition / Page No.

1923 / 1980

8 / xiv

Synopsis

Esselmont expressed his gratitude to the Baha\'i historian, Avarih, who later left the faith and was declared a Covenant-breaker. This reference was completely removed.

13 / 14

\"Miracles\" were discussed which were intended to show how civilization has advanced since the nineteenth century. Some of these \"miracles\" have reversed and worsened since 1923. They have been edited from the text.

22 / 13

The apostate Avarih was quoted, but his name has been replaced by \"a historian.\"

28 / 20

In the original, Esselmont\'s remarks seem to indicate that the Bab was merely a forerunner to Baha\'u\'llah, a view which was quite common at the beginning of this century. Later editions reflect the current notion of the Bab and Baha\'u\'llah being the \"Co-founders of their Faith.\"

34 / 26

Avarih\'s material was dropped completely.

39 / 33

A quote of Avarih is left in the text, but his name was removed.

55-6 / 53-4

Avarih provided a lengthy description of the marriage of Abdu\'l-Baha, which remains in later editions with Avarih\'s name removed.

67-9 / 67-9

This is a very important change. Esselmont spoke of the unique station of Abdu\'l-Baha and stated that \"whatever Abdu\'l-Baha says or does is to be accepted as of equal authority with the direct utterance of the Manifestation.\" Further, he quoted Abdu\'l-Baha to the effect that the Bab was \"the \'Promised Christ.\'\" Two pages have been completely reworked. The institution of the Guardianship was introduced and the views which Esselmont originally expressed are referred to as \"naive enthusiasm.\"

118 / 130

Baha\'u\'llah provided that Abdu\'l-Baha would be the sole interpreter of his writings and after him the International House of Justice, but this has been changed to \"the authorized interpreter.\" The institution of the Guardianship was added in the 1937 edition (pg. 160) and it was clearly stated that there would be \"successive Guardians.\" However, this section was changed again in the 1970 revision and refers only to Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian, with no mention of succession.

123-4 / 135-7

Esselmont was present when Abdu\'l-Baha specifically advocated a form of constitutional monarchy under the heading \"True Civilization.\" This quotation has been dropped and replaced with two pages of general material which merely says that there will be different types of government under the Lesser Peace and the Most Great Peace.

146 / 165-6

Emphasis on the use of Esperanto as the universal language is played down in later editions.

157-8 / 179-9

A detailed two page account of Spiritual Assemblies in Persia by Jinab-i-Assad\'llah Fadil Mazindarani has been replaced by an updated description of functions.

161 / 186

Nineteen Day Feast was added.

190 / 218

The establishment of the League of Nations and reduction in armaments were cited as \"advances in fulfillment\" of prophecies of world peace. This statement has been removed.

203-4 / 235-7

Esselmont claimed that Baha\'u\'llah\'s words have a \"creative power\" and he cited a number of specific advances as proof. He claimed that world temperance was advancing, military dictatorships had fallen and will not be revived, democracy was spreading, Esparanto was gaining worldwide acceptance as a universal language, and the \"emancipation of the workers\" was \"steady and irresistible.\" This has been rewritten in a more general fashion.

209-10 / 244-7

Under the heading of \"Social Troubles After the War,\" Esselmont gave an eyewitness account of some specific predictions by Abdu\'l-Baha, which did not take place. This section has been replaced by nearly three pages of general information summing up Baha\'u\'llah\'s proclamation.

211-12 / 249-50

Abdu\'l-Baha was quoted, asserting that the Kingdom of God would be established in this century along with world peace and a universal language, specifically by 1957. This section has been replaced with material by Abdu\'l-Baha which speaks generally of the effect of the Baha\'i Faith on the world. It has been made to appear as if Esselmont was referring to the progress of the movement at the one hundredth anniversary of Baha\'u\'llah\'s declaration, or 1963. It is important to note that this change was not made in the major revision in 1937, but in the 1970 revision, after the events predicted did not take place.

215-6 / 253-4

Avarih\'s estimates of the number of Baha\'is worldwide have been replaced. It is interesting to note that it was the issue of dishonesty in the Baha\'i administration over the numerical success of the movement, which Avarih cited as his reason for leaving the faith.

228-9 / 287

Esselmont supplied a bibliography for further study which included books from a variety of authors, including Edward G. Browne. In the 1937 edition it was removed completely, but a new list of references is included at the end of later editions. Although, Browne\'s material remains in the text, his work is missing from the latest bibliography.

All Things Made New by John Ferraby

Edition / Page No.

1957 / 1987

5 / 7

Synopsis

Ferraby dedicated his book to \"The First Guardian of the Baha\'i Faith.\" In the later edition, Ferraby\'s dedication is to \"The Guardian.\" This is the first of many changes concerning the perpetuity and indispensable nature of the Guardianship.

27-8 / 27-8

Ferraby originally stated that the Guardianship was to be perpetual, but this section has been reworked, explaining that another Guardian could not be appointed since none were qualified. All references to the duties of the Guardian were in the present tense, but have been changed to the past tense, indicating that the Guardianship has ceased.

64 / 67

Islam was said to be declining in influence and power in the world and that this trend will continue. Because of events in the Middle East during the past two decades, this section has been rewritten, shifting the emphasis to a decline in Islam\'s spirituality and reputation in the world.

246-7 / 252-3

In the original edition, Ferraby quoted the Will of Abdu\'l-Baha and demonstrated that the Cause would continue to have a visible Centre through the institution of successive Guardians. He referred to this as \"a Covenant so mighty that mankind has never seen its like.\" However, this section has been completely rewritten, stating that the Will only provided for the \"possibility\" for a succession of Guardians and that the writings nowhere \"promise or guarantee\" that the institution would continue. The Universal House of Justice is now presented as the \"visible centre.\"

250-5 / 256-61

The Will of Abdu\'l-Baha and the Covenant were discussed. References to the Guardian have been replaced or amended with \"the Universal House of Justice.\"

256-62 / 262-72

This section has undergone major revision with the addition of hundreds of words. References to the Guardianship have been changed to the past tense or have been replaced with \"the Universal House of Justice.\"

272- 4 / 288-90

Ferraby extolled the virtues of the Baha\'i Administrative Order and cited evidences of its superiority over concepts of authority in Christianity and Islam. Because of the unexpected death of Shoghi Effendi, this information was modified to a great extent, with the notion of the hereditary Guardianship being played down.

279 / 295

Baha\'i burial customs were discussed and Ferraby\'s statement that \"Cremation is forbidden, because the too sudden disintegration of the body may harm the departed soul\" has been replaced with a statement by Abdu\'l-Baha.

308-12 / 326-31

A number of books have been dropped from Ferraby\'s bibliography, including those written by Edward G. Browne. References to Browne\'s works still appear in the text of later editions, but the notes refer the reader to books by other Baha\'i authors who also quote Browne. Two of the Baha\'i books referred to also contain material which is critical of Browne, so these revisions were apparently made to divert the reader from the primary sources, which contain material that is at variance with orthodox versions of the history of the movement.

Christ and Baha\'u\'llah by George Townshend

Edition / Page No.

1957 / 1985

79 / 79

Synopsis

Townshend originally referred to Shoghi Effendi as the \"first and present Guardian,\" but this phrase has been dropped.

98-9 / 98-9

Townshend discussed the Will and Testament of Abdu\'l-Baha and the provision for a succession of Guardians. The succession principle has been dropped and Shoghi Effendi is no longer spoken of as \"the first Guardian.\"

100-1 / 100-1

This section dealt with \"the lineage of succeeding Guardians,\" but it has been changed so it appears that Townshend is writing about \"divinely guided institutions\" in general.

Selected Writings of Shoghi Effendi by Shoghi Effendi

Edition / Page No.

1942 / 1975

3 - 5 / vii

Synopsis

The original edition began with nearly three pages of excerpts from Abdu\'l-Baha\'s Will and Testament, in which he commanded his followers to \"turn unto Shoghi Effendi....\" This has been reduced in the 1975 edition to two paragraphs with statements concerning hereditary succession of the Guardianship and the role of the Guardian as the Head of the Universal House of Justice replaced with ellipses.

10 / 4

Two paragraphs have been removed, one of which deals mainly with outdated statistics concerning the growth of the Faith. The other is an assertion by Shoghi Effendi that he was \"appointed as First Guardian of the Baha\'i Faith and Head of the Universal House of Justice....\"

27-8 / 19

A paragraph has been removed which described the Administrative Order as \"the framework of the Will [of Abdu\'l-Baha] itself, the inviolable stronghold....\"

43-5 / 32

Two full pages have been removed, which formed an apologetic for the functions, the centrality, and the absolutely essential position of the Guardianship in Baha\'u\'llah\'s World Order.

Footnotes:

43 Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By; Nabil, The Dawn-Breakers.

44 Hasan M. Balyuzi, Edward Granville Browne ; William S. Hatcher and J. Douglas Martin, The Baha\'i Faith 207-11; Douglas Martin, \"The Missionary as Historian\" 46-8.

45 John Ferraby, All Things Made New (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1957) 308-9, 312.

46 John Ferraby, All Things Made New (1987) 326-8, 331.

47 John Esselmont, who was also appointed a \"Hand of the Cause\" after his death in 1925, included a bibliography in the original edition of Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era , for \"students who wish to make a further study.\" A Traveller\'s Narrative is included in this bibliography, which was removed completely in the 1937 edition. A list of \"Basic References\" appears in the 1980 edition, replacing the original bibliography, and Browne\'s work is no longer included, although his material still appears as part of the text. See, John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era, 1st rev. ed., (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1937); John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era (1980) 14, 39, 40, 117, 118 & 287.

48 William M. Miller, The Baha\'i Faith 218, 275, 289-90; Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal 438; Ruhiyyih Rabbani, Twenty-Five Years of the Guardianship (Wilmette: Baha\'i Publishing Committee, 1948) 21; As a possible reference see, Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By 327.

49 National Teaching Committee of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha\'is of the United States, The Covenant: Its Meaning and Origin and Our Attitude Toward It (Wilmette: The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha\'is of the United States, 1988) 71-73.

50 John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era (1923) 8.

51 John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era (1937) viii; John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era (1980) xiv.

52 John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era (1980) 33.

53 John E. Esselmont, Baha\'u\'llah and the New Era (1980) 13.